Kenya

From WAET

Hellen Nasimiyuh Inyega
Department of Reading Education, University of Georgia

Patricia Nyawira Mbugua
Kenya Science Teachers College

Contents 1 The Geographical Position of Kenya 2 General Description of the Education System 3 Educational Levels 3.1 Pre-Primary 3.2 Primary (Standards 1-8) 3.3 Secondary (Forms 1-4) 4 Private Schools 5 Disparities in the Distribution of Schools, Teachers, and Resources 6 Technology Policy 7 Current and Forecasted Investment 8 Research on Educational Technology in Kenya 9 Major Challenges for Educational Technology 10 Recommendations from Nation and Individual Cases 11 Notes 12 References 13 Notes 13.1 Miscelaneous web sources 14 Related Cases 14.1 Nairobi 15 Citation

The Geographical Position of Kenya

Kenya is one of the independent countries on the African continent .

Kenya is on the Eastern African coast straddling the equator between latitudes 4o N and 4o S, and longitudes 34o E and 41o E. Its total area is 582,647 square kilometers (or 224,961 square miles). To the north it is bordered by Ethiopia, to the northwest by Sudan, to the west by Uganda, to the south by Tanzania and to the east by Somalia. It has a coastline of about 400 kilometers along the Indian Ocean. Kenya has administrative areas based on sociopolitical and economic factors (see Kenya Figure 2).

Kenya is divided into eight administrative provinces: Central, Coast, Eastern, Nairobi, North Eastern, Nyanza, Rift Valley, and Western as shown above. Each province is further divided into districts. The next lower hierarchies are the divisions, locations, and sub-locations (Agak, 1995).

The Kenyan flag has three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green.

The red band is edged in white and a large warrior's shield covering crossed spears is superimposed at the center (see Kenya figure 3). The colors on the Kenyan flag are symbolic. Black is the color of the people, red the color of blood spilled for the fights for independence, green the color of the landscape/scenery, and white the color for peace. The shield and spear symbolize defense or assurance of protection.

General Description of the Education System

Public schooling in Kenya consists of eight years of primary school, four years of secondary school and four years of basic university education (8-4-4 education system). There is a centralized system of education, inherited from Britain at independence in 1963, and a national syllabus to be taught by all publicly funded schools (Sanya, 2001). There are more than 40 distinct languages in Kenya. The language of instruction is English throughout the 8-4-4 education system, though in the rural areas of the country the curriculum is taught in indigenous language from Standard 1-3 (Muthwii, 2002), the equivalent of Grades 1-3.

The fundamental goal of education is to prepare and equip the youth to be useful members of society. From this fundamental need arise the following six specific goals of education:

1. National Unity: Education in Kenya must foster a sense of nationhood and promote national unity. Education should help the young people acquire a sense of nationhood by removing conflicts and promoting positive attitudes of mutual respect, which will enable them to live together in harmony and to make a positive contribution to the national life.
2. National Development: Education should meet the economic and social need of national development equipping the youth of the country to play an effective and productive role in the life of the nation.
3. Individual Development and Self-fulfilment: Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents and personality. It should help every child to develop his/her potential interests and abilities. Education should foster sound moral and religious values in order to help children grow up into self-disciplined, self-reliant and integrated citizens.
4. Social Equality: Education should promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility. Education should provide equal opportunities for all and give the child varied and challenging opportunities for collective and corporate social service.
5. Respect and Development of Cultural Heritage: Education should respect, foster and develop Kenya's rich and varied cultures. It should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present cultural values and their valid place in contemporary society, as well as a sense of respect for unfamiliar cultures.
6. International Consciousness: Education should foster positive attitudes towards other countries and towards the international community, of which Kenya is part (Abagi, Olwenya, & Otieno, 2000; Ayot & Patel, 1987).

Kenyan children are not required to attend school by law, but perhaps as high as 80 percent of children receive at least some elementary education. Many parents value education and see it as the key to a better life for their children.

Educational Levels

Pre-Primary

Before 1980, pre-primary education, which caters for children between one and six years of age, was exclusively the responsibility of local communities and non-governmental organizations such as churches, voluntary organizations, local authorities and individual investors. At that time there were only six pre-school training centers, which were usually manned by the Ministry of Culture and Social Services.

The government assumed responsibility for pre-school education in 1980 and has since streamlined the pre-school program. The training of pre-school teachers, the preparation and development of the curriculum and the preparation of teaching materials are now undertaken by the government. The development of pre-school units and the cost of teachers' services have, on the other hand, continued to be met by the local communities and non-governmental agencies.

To enhance the development of pre-school education, the government in collaboration with the Van Leer Foundation, established the National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE), based at Kenya Institute of Education. The Center's main responsibility is to train the trainers of pre-school teachers, who are then posted to the individual districts through the District Centers for Early Childhood Education (DICECE).

Today, there are 18 such centers; the ultimate objective is to have a center in every district. The pre-primary education program has grown tremendously over the past twenty years. The number of children attending pre-primary units in 1990 was approximately 800,000, along with 20,000 pre-school teachers.

Primary (Standards 1-8)

Primary education, which is provided free of charge, is in essence the first phase of Kenya's formal education system. It usually starts at six years of age and runs for eight years. The main purpose of primary education is to prepare children to participate fully in the social, political and economic well being of the country. The new primary school curriculum has therefore been designed to provide a more functional and practical education to provide for the needs of children who finish their education at the primary school level and also for those who wish to continue with secondary education.

Many primary schools are co-ed and admit both girls and boys. Some are single gender – girls' or boys' schools. The school can also either be boarding (students stay in school) or day (the students go home at the end of each day) or both boarding and day. Children have to share facilities including seating spaces, which are often limited. They also have to wear uniforms often decided by a given school's administration.

There has been a remarkable expansion in primary education over the past three decades, both in terms of the number of schools established and in the number of children enrolled. At independence, there were 6,056 primary schools with a total enrollment of 891,600 children. At the same time, trained teachers numbered 92,000. In 1990 there were over 14,690 primary schools, with an enrollment of slightly over five million children and with nearly 200,000 trained teachers respectively. Today, there are over 17,600 public primary schools (see Kenya Table 1 below)

Number of Types of Institutions

Table 1. Number of different types of pre–college educational institutions in Kenya (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology)

Year	Pre-Primary	Public Primary	Private Primary	Public Secondary	Private Secondary	Total
1999	25,429	17,054	569	2,785	412	46,249
2000	26,294	17,381	1,236	2,888	357	48,118
2001	27,573	17,544	1,357	3,242	389	50,095
2002	28,300	17,683	1,441	3,247	420	51,091
2003	28, 995	17,822	1,674	3,547	452	52,490

In addition to the expansion in the number of primary students enrolled, there has been a significant improvement in the participation of girls in education. When independence was achieved in 1963, only about a third of the children enrolled in primary schools were girls. By 1990 the proportion of girls had risen to nearly 50 percent. The specific objectives of primary education are stated in Session Paper No. 6 of 1988 on Education and Manpower Development for the Next Decade and Beyond (Government of Kenya, 1988). These include:

1. to impart literacy, numeracy and manipulative skills;
2. to develop self-expression; and
3. utilization of the senses to develop a measure of logical thought and critical judgment.

Subjects taught in primary schools include: language (Kiswahili and English), mathematics, history, civics, geography, science, arts and crafts, and religious education. At the end of primary school, Kenyan pupils take the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) examination. The crucial role played by primary schools has led to its being declared a human right which every child is entitled, and whose provision should be, therefore, the responsibility of the state (Nafula, 2001).

Secondary (Forms 1-4)

The current secondary education program is geared towards meeting the needs of both the students that terminate their education after secondary school and those that proceed for higher education. In this context, the new secondary school curriculum lays greater emphasis on job-oriented courses, such as business and technical education. There are two genres of secondary schools in Kenya, namely public and private schools. The public secondary schools are funded by the government or communities and are managed through a Board of Governors and Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs).

There has been a tremendous increase in both the number of secondary schools and in student enrollment in response to the rapidly increasing number of primary school graduates seeking entry to the secondary level. In 1963 there were only 151 secondary schools, with a total enrollment of 30,120 students. Today there are over 3,000 secondary schools (see Table 1 above) with an enrollment of over 620,000 students. Of this total, slightly over 40 per cent are girls. Academic subjects and vocational subjects are emphasized at the secondary school. The curriculum covers: mathematics, business education, Kiswahili, English, science, agriculture, home science, geography, history, religious education, art and craft education, music, physical education.

Private Schools

The above structure of the public school system is complemented by a similar system of private and non-governmental educational institutions (Nafula, 2001). Some of these institutions prefer the General Certificate Examination (GCE) syllabus based on the British National Curriculum. This is because GCE caters mainly to international students [e.g., children of the diplomatic corps and expatiates as well as a few Kenyan children]. This curriculum would reflect more closely, in subject matter or content and the number of years of schooling, what would be found in a British classroom and prepares students for universities abroad. Although private institutions are a major component of the education system in Kenya, their location has a strong urban bias and is generally found in economically advantaged parts of the country. A detailed examination of the private education sub-sector is outside the scope of this chapter.

Disparities in the Distribution of Schools, Teachers, and Resources

The population in Kenya can be classified into two main categories: urban and rural. The urban population is comprised of the urban poor who dwell mainly in the slums, the middle working class, and the affluent upper-class population found living mainly in the suburbs (Sanya, 2001). According to the 1999 census, Kenya's urban population stands at 35 percent; of these, 29.3 percent are poor. In rural areas, 46.4 percent of the population lives below poverty line (Development Plan 1997-2001). The majority of Kenya's population therefore is rural, made up of poor peasants tilling small plots of land for subsistence. The yields per acre on these plots are low, often leaving no surplus for sale. Their basic needs are therefore not adequately met. Transnational corporations, state agencies, and private companies own the large cash-crop plantations and have their head offices located in the capital city of Nairobi. For the country to make any meaningful progress in technological advancement, care must be taken to ensure that the special needs of each sector of population are adequately met.

Because Kenya is basically an agricultural economy with nearly half of its population living below poverty line, economic growth in the past 15 years has been very limited, while population growth in contrast has been very rapid (Sanya, 2001). These two factors have precipitated into high unemployment rates and an increase in poverty levels. Poverty in the country manifests itself in the form of hunger, illiteracy, poor shelter, lack of access to basic education and drinking water, and minimum health facilities (Nafula, 2001). The situation is made worse by the fact that Kenya, like most developing countries, depends heavily on external borrowing to finance some of her recurrent expenditure. This credit facility has been withheld for more than seven years now, leaving most people to depend on meager income from labor, either on their own land or from self-employment in the informal sector. In many cases, this income is not enough to provide for the basic needs of these workers and their families. How then can these impoverished people be expected to contribute toward the financing of technological advancement in the education sector?

The poorest schools in Kenya are found in the semiarid areas occupied by the nomadic communities like the Maasai, Samburu, Turkana, and Somali. Here the school concept is different from what we perceive it to be (Sanya, 2001). These schools move with the communities as they look for pasture for their livestock. The mobile school mainly consists of a wooden chest full of basic books transported on a camel's back with one or two teachers accompanying it. In this region, the school has no structures, no furniture, and sometimes no shade in which to conduct the lessons. Learning is largely informal and only takes place after the routine chores for the day have been accomplished and the hot sun has gone down. The students' homes are temporary and have no electricity. It is this section of Kenya's population for which technology is likely to remain an everlasting evasive dream ... a dream that may never be realized, even in their lifetime. The needs of these people are few and basic--and technology is not one of them (Sanya, 2001).

The two post independence decades in Kenya experienced high enrollment rates. However, this trend has recently been reversed at all level of education, particularly at primary and secondary levels. High repetition and drop-out rates, low completion and transition rates have been the order of the day. The losses made were attributable to the high cost of education, differential geographic access to educational facilities (The Government of Kenya/UN Kenya, 2003). This has had a negative impact on access, retention, equity, and quality of education (Nafula, 2001). Primary school enrollment is still characterized by sharp regional disparities. The highest net enrollment rate reported was 83% for Central and 75% for Nyanza, while the lowest were reported in Coast 57%, and North-Eastern 60% (MICS, 2000).

One goal of educational reform has been to ensure that educational opportunities reach all segments of the population especially those living in economically disadvantaged areas (Nafula, 2001). So far, the government has invested substantial effort aimed at closing the educational achievement gaps between regions and economic classes, especially with the declaration of free primary education. Secondary education is still costly though. Four key programs/activities that have been instituted including:

• The Children's Bill, passed by an Act of Parliament in 2002 provided the framework for enforcing universal primary education in the country. The Children's Act spells out a child's right to education in Kenya, and stipulates a fine of almost 650 dollars for parents and guardians who fail to respect this right. However, certain groups believe the extreme poverty that affects many Kenyans demands that a more nuanced view of parental responsibilities be taken by authorities.
• The School Feeding Program which targets mainly poverty stricken Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL)
• The Textbook Fund which is a cushion for poor parents from costs of learning materials and
• The Bursary Fund, an initiative aimed at improving the transition rates from primary school by helping poor students meet some of the costs related to secondary school attendance.

For supplementary information about ethnic inequalities in education see this website.

Technology Policy

At independence, Kenya adopted a philosophy of education that would best serve a country united in a national purpose (Sanya, 2001). Since then, the government has formulated various educational policies and programs such as: The establishment of a public educational system with national curricula, a national teaching service, and a national examination and certification body (Nafula, 2001). The Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MOEST) ensures that the quality of education is standardized across the country.

One of MOEST's key departments is the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE), a center for research and curriculum development. It is here that the national curriculum and support materials for all the subjects are developed. From the national goals, KIE formulates instructional objectives for the national curriculum (Ayot & Patel, 1987). KIE also has an Educational Media Services Department responsible for developing media-related materials to support the curriculum. It has a recording studio that produces programs for use in schools across the country.

At independence, KIE was charged with the responsibility of preparing and airing radio programs for all subjects to supplement existing learning resources. The timetable for these programs was worked out in advance and sent to all schools and teachers who were then required to plan their lessons to coincide with these airtimes (Sanya, 2001).

These programs were very popular, although they had serious setbacks. First, schools needed to buy batteries, which in some cases they could not afford. Second, some parts of the country had very poor reception especially during the rainy months, rendering the use of the programs impossible. Perhaps the main criticism of these programs was the fact that they were not interactive (Sanya, 2001). Furthermore, some of the content presented was not very challenging, especially for the brighter learners.

Despite these problems, in many instances this support service was regarded as invaluable because it served to provide some kind of variety in the manner in which subject matter was delivered. Unfortunately, however, these programs were phased out more than 10 years ago because of the government's inability to pay for the needed airtime. This has dealt a great blow to many students for whom these programs were the only form of technology they were exposed to (Sanya, 2001).

The Inspectorate arm of the MOEST is responsible for disseminating materials and ensuring that they are properly used. It also ensures that instructional strategies used are appropriate to the different educational levels. It organizes in-service training for practicing teachers as well as approves the textbooks to be used in Kenyan schools. MOEST is also responsible for the assessment of the curriculum through the Kenya National Examinations Council, which centrally sets and marks the major examinations in the country.

Kenya does not have a comprehensive computer education policy although computer education was introduced in schools with effect from 1998 as an optional subject examinable in the fourth year of secondary school (Technet, 2003). There is no formal teaching or official curriculum for computers in primary schools, although a relatively small number of up-market private schools offer the subject (Sanya, 2001). One reason is that the system of education places more emphasis on examinations, which are done at the end of each (8-4 -4) education cycle.

Little emphasis is put on inquiry as an instructional strategy (Sanya, 2001). This scenario is unfortunate since computers in school could make a big impact with the application of computer assisted learning and the usage of the Internet. The latter is particularly pertinent in a country where there is a shortage of text books and funds to buy books.

The mass introduction of computer education in the school system has, however, been hampered by the following factors, inter alia:

• High costs of the equipment and software
• Poor infrastructure e.g. telephone and electrical grid
• Lack of trained teachers in the subject
• Lack of relevant software for computer assisted learning
• Low awareness

Given the lack of policy on computer technology use in schools, it seems necessary to provide a working definition of educational technology that goes beyond computer education and one that examines Kenya's unique educational technology needs in more general terms. Educational technology deals with the overall system of education while instructional technology is a subsystem of that overall system (Mitchell, 1978) that deals specifically with classroom teaching and learning processes (Levira, 1997). Central to that subsystem are the instructional media. Information processing, which is central to the learning process, involves formation of sensory images perceived through human senses (Driscoll, 1994). Such senses are best activated by visual or auditory patterns like the verbal sound in language, the physical objects, models, laboratory specimens, printed text, graphics and moving image that the learner interacts with in the learning process (Heinich, Molenda, & Russell 1989).

Language is one of the oldest media, but always forgotten when listing media examples. It is the "software" of every other media. If we consider, for instance, the printed text, oral literature, audio software, video and television programs, telephone and teleconferencing among others, language is always involved (Levira, 1997).

Despite the absence of computer technologies, it must be acknowledged that local and/or indigenous technologies are encouraged through subjects offered in public schools. For instance, Arts and Crafts, Fine Arts, Home Economics, Clothing and Textiles, and Science. In these subjects, students are encouraged to share any technological know-how from their local communities and also learn skills related to basket weaving, pottery, carving/sculpturing, painting, construction, welding, mechanics, ornament-making, crocheting, embroidery, tailoring, cookery, food processing and preservation, alternative medicine processing and preservation, making of musical instruments, and knowledge of weather patterns. It is safe to assume, therefore, that Kenyan schools use both modern and traditional technologies although the extent to which each is used will vary from school to school and is closely tied to the economic ability of each given school.

Media in teaching/learning situations is used to equip youth with the skills to enable them to efficiently receive and transmit information in the form of words, numbers, images, and sound and to fit in the current job market. This is done at varying degrees depending upon a given school's purchasing power. In other words, differences in media use will depend on whether or not a school can afford the media. In many schools, one is likely to find buildings, a chalkboard/wall, printed text (e.g. textbooks), and furniture on which students sit.

The responsibility for development and application of media (or teaching aids) is left to teachers, with minimum support from school authorities. Hand drawn graphics are a common scene in the elementary schools (Levira, 1997). Some schools use pictures, three dimensional materials, typewriters, radios, tape recorders and VCRs. Some schools use cameras/pictures and slides. Some districts also have educational resource centers (ERCs) and public libraries where teachers could go to for additional instructional materials (Mukwa, 1986).

To facilitate effective interaction between the teacher, the learners and the subject matter, the classroom teacher should use an assortment of media materials and situations (Brock, 1994). Such a combination has the power to evoke an inquiry mind, motivate actions, evoke emotions, change attitudes and promote learning among learners (Heinich et al. 1989).

The creativity of teachers and the sensory perception of their learners determine the effective facilitation of meaningful teaching/learning function (Levira, 1997) using most media, traditional and modern alike. In other words, no single medium is likely to have properties that make it best for every purpose. In some schools, students are encouraged to help collect and create instructional materials. For instance, they could bring to school environmental print (i.e. food packages/wrappings) that could be used for educational purposes. Tobon (1988) says "Ideally each country should produce its own media materials suited to its own needs and aims (p. 70)". Tobon further argues that adaptation of such innovations would make use of more local resources and would produce materials which are more relevant to the school syllabus than imported technology.

Post school computer education and training has been available in the country for over a decade mainly in commercial colleges. Government assisted polytechnics and the universities also offer high level computer education. The commercial computer training establishments are ubiquitous in all towns and urban centers. They cater for those who missed learning to use computers in the school system but who are required to have computer literacy skills. They are supposed to be registered by the Ministry of Education and Technology but they have mushroomed in numbers over the years so much that most do not follow registration formalities. As such it is hard to get reliable statistics. It is however estimated that in 2001 over 150,000 passed through basic computer skills training colleges. This represents about .5% of the population and is mostly comprised of high school graduates.

For a long time, Telkom Kenya Limited has enjoyed exclusive rights to provide telecommunications services in Kenya. From June 30 2004, a fully liberalized market reality was ushered in Kenya under a competitive environment (Muthoni, 2004). The Communications Commission of Kenya (CCK) found it necessary to review and reconcretize the market structure and the licensing procedures to allow for more innovation in the sector as well as allowing the participation of more Kenyans in the provision and use of modern telecommunication services. The new regulatory strategy is in response and consistent with the government's economic recovery strategy as articulated in “Kenya Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation 2003-2007.”

The new regulatory structure will, among other things, provide for the following: licensing of additional Internet Backbone and Gateway Operators, Broadcast Signal Distributors and Commercial VSAT Operators on a first come first served basis, subject to potential licenses demonstrating to run such networks; and allow Internet Backbone and Gateway Operators, Broadcast Signal Distributors and Commercial VSAT Operators and Public Data Network Operators to carry out any form of multimedia traffic. In the mid- to long-term period, however, the Commission intends to adopt a unified and absolute technology neutral licensing framework that permits any form of communications infrastructure to be used to provide any type of communications service that is technically capable of providing.

Kenya thus hopes to see additional investment opportunities in the various market segments as well as new regulatory challenges associated with convergence; promotion and protection of interested users; access to the best and cheapest technology as well as fair competition among licensees; stimulation of creation of jobs; and mainstreaming of ICTs into the country's development process (Muthoni, 2004).

Current and Forecasted Investment

Education and training constitute an investment in human capital that is expected to yield a stream of future returns in the form of income and earnings for the individual and society and economic growth through enhanced productivity (Shultz, 1963). The theory of human capital postulates that individuals are motivated to spend on themselves in diverse ways by purchasing education, not for its own sake, but for the sake of future pecuniary and non-pecuniary returns. Both direct and indirect costs are incurred when individuals and governments spend on education (Shultz, 1962).

From the theory of human capital, expenditures made by individuals and governments on education and training are investments that will provide returns in the future. Investment in human resource development enables individuals to effectively participate in the national development process. In particular, investment in education plays a significant role in human development through the process of empowering people to improve their well-being and participate actively in building the nation (Nafula, 2001).

Becker (1993) shows that investing in education and training increases individuals' lifetime earnings and contributes to economic and social development. Thus, education and training are processes of human capital formation. In fact, Shultz (1962) notes that all activities aimed at improving quality of human life such as spending on health, job search, training, and migration are part of human capital. Kenya is thus likely to continue investing in education now and in future.

Almost all schools built and equipped after independence had initially been the result of “harambee,” [which means pulling or putting resources together on a self-help basis (Nafukho, 1994)] an exclusive responsibility of concerned communities or non governmental agencies such as local church groups. Since independence, the government has gradually taken over the administration of education from local authorities and assumed a greater share of the financial cost in line with the political commitment to provide equal educational opportunities to all through the provision of free primary education.

Almost all primary and secondary schools in the country are now in the public sector and depend on the government to provide teachers and for their operational expenses although the bulk of government subsidies are in the form of teachers' salaries, leaving no money for development expenditure.

Government expenditure on school supplies and equipment are minimal as these are financed by fees levied on parents by parent teacher associations (PTAs). The parents and local communities ensure a steady supply of physical facilities by contributing funds for construction and maintenance of laboratories, libraries, workshops, classrooms, and student hostels.

In 1988, the government adopted the policy of “cost-sharing” to help finance education in the country (Sanya, 2001). Under the cost sharing schemes, in addition to previously existing costs such as costs of uniforms and transportation, households had to meet some of the costs (initially funded by the government) such as construction of schools, purchase of textbooks and school equipment and occasionally extra tuition while the government continued the responsibility of remunerating school teachers (Nafula, 2001).

Cost-sharing has not, however, solved the problem of the inability to meet the high cost of education in the country. This amount is not adequate and cannot pay for equipment for technical subjects as well as IT. Consequently, high school fees are levied on students, many of whom are from poor families and are unable to pay these fees as well as pay for books and equipment. This has led to poor quality education in areas where parents are predominately poor and are, therefore, not in a position to contribute meaningfully toward educational expenditures.

Children whose parents cannot afford the cost of instructional materials, school uniforms, tuition fees and activity fees tend to go to school irregularly and in the long run drop out of school (Government of Kenya, 2001; (Sanya, 2001)). Besides, such parents have become increasing unable to feed their children properly and to provide adequate health services. In such areas, technological advancement lags behind because the money set aside for improving or acquiring equipment is very little. Alternative methods of harnessing funds must be sought if Kenya is to be technologically literate.

To implement educational technology successfully, professional development is indispensable as a basic component of schools and systems that value continuous improvement in pursuit of excellence. A strong, comprehensive professional development program cannot be left to chance. Since professional development is to create a community of learners, who are proficient in using technology for professional purposes and in integrating it into all curriculum areas, it must have a defined structure of competencies and a support system that protects and nurtures both the right and the expectation of continued development.

Professional development in technology for educators has been ongoing, but has been conducted primarily on an area, district and school wide basis, rather than nationwide. It depends largely on what funds specific schools have set aside for that purpose. For instance, schools situated in economically advantaged areas are likely to have more funds from the parent/teacher associations (PTAs) than those in economically disadvantaged areas. In schools that can afford technology, the professional development plan in technology is based upon several beliefs:

1. Learning and development is a continuous process.
2. Training will be offered as teachers have adequate access to hardware and software to allow for immediate follow-up practice and application of what was learned.
3. Training and other development opportunities are offered by job-alike educators or by trainers well versed in the use of technology in educational settings.

Provided below is a summary of the major partners involved in the funding of and improving education in Kenya:

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Action Aid
CARE Kenya
Catholic Relief Services
Aga Khan Foundation
World Bank
UNICEF

ADULT EDUCATION
Action Aid - Kenya
Plan International
GTZ

PRIMARY EDUCATION
DFID
GTZ
World Bank

SECONDARY EDUCATION
JICA
GIRL-CHILD EDUCATION
UNICEF
CARE - Kenya

Research on Educational Technology in Kenya

Computer education in Kenya was introduced in 1998, although different government ministries have yet to coordinate their approach to ICT education (Adhola, 2004). Currently, the country has close to 270,000 fixed lines with a ratio of one telephone line for every 100 people. Only a small minority of Kenyans are able to make use of personal computers. The Computer Society of Kenya (CSK) puts the estimate at one computer for every 2,000 Kenyans –– while the national power grid serves less than 15 percent of the population. According CSK quarterly report of 2003, the country is estimated to have 500,000 internet users, including those who access the web through cyber cafes. A more conservative estimate is that over 90 percent of Kenyans have no access to ICT –– and the number of people who can access the internet is less than 500,000, out a population of 30 million (Adhola, 2004).

Outside the education system, individuals and nongovernmental groups have made efforts to provide technology services especially in the big cities like Nairobi. At the end of 2000, Kenya had 44 licensed Internet Service Providers (ISPs). By October 2002, there were over 70. The ISP sector is fairly liberalized and the country has eagerly embraced the Internet. Kenya is rated number four in Africa (After South Africa, Egypt, and Morocco in that order) in terms of dial up per capita connections to the Internet. The ISPs must rely on the unpredictable and unreliable “Jambonet” as the Internet gateway. Telekom Kenya had the monopoly until June 2004 to provide Internet backbone services. There are numerous Internet or Cyber Cafes spread primarily through all the urban centers in the country. They charge between 1 and 7 shillings per minute for Internet access. In the last year this sub-sector has experienced strong competition with many cyber cafes having to close down due to declining earnings.

Nairobits, an NGO run by local staff and supported by Dutch and Irish computer experts, has developed a free e-learning program in computer skills for youths living in slum areas of the city. Twenty students, aged 17-20 from Nairobi's Mathare Valley slum area were initially selected in 2000 and 100 have since passed through the organization's doors. Demand has increased to the point where the annual intake last year was 100 (Rowe, 2003). The original students have progressed from absolute beginners who had never touched a computer mouse to leaders of a small company making websites for local organizations and training their peers. Facilitating them is a group of international volunteers and there are now plans to expand into other parts of Kenya. The organization helps those who complete the course to set up computer centers in the slums. Such centers then offer business services and teach youngsters computer skills and social skills. This stops kids hanging around on street corners and getting into drug abuse.

In a 2002 UNU-INTECH survey among 10 Kenyan and Nigerian universities, Oyelaran-Oyeyinka found that high Internet costs continued to hinder access by academics to on-line data and teaching materials. He interviewed the 200 researchers and found that all of them were unable to make use of the Internet to plug into the knowledge base – a tool taken for granted by researchers in Europe, North America and many Asian countries.

The study focused on individual and institutional user levels. Using component extraction, the study categorized the main constraints of access and use into five categories namely: connectivity, infrastructure, skills and ease of use, costs, and perceived advantages of the Internet. In Kenya, connectivity to the Internet was ranked the most limiting factor followed closely by costs. The most binding constraints were inadequate access points, connectivity problems as well as a lack of affordable computing accessories.

The language of content was not cited as a significant factor for the 200 respondents since Kenya, a former British colony, adopted English the predominant language on the Internet as a common language for instruction. The fact that the survey was carried out among university lecturers, who are, as a group, among the most privileged in terms of computer and Internet access underlines the magnitude of the problem. The study concluded that much stronger policy measures are needed to hasten Internet diffusion in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Although the poorest parts of Kenya seem light years away from the high-tech information superhighway, E-learning could be the answer to the hugely escalating demand for education in the developing world. A small grass-roots project in the Kenyan capital Nairobi is discovering that technology that seems so out of reach to so much of Africa may in fact be able to help meet education needs - from primary through higher education. E-learning, which can involve both teaching computer skills and using those skills to undertake distance learning, is set to become a critical educational tool in the 21st century (Rowe, 2003).

Kenya National Education Network (KENET) was set up on April 23 1999 following the signing of a memorandum of understanding between the governments of Kenya and the USA through USAID. The aim was to establish sustainable communication and networking among educational institutions in Kenya that facilitates wide use of Internet technology in teaching, research and sharing of other information resources to the general populace at an affordable cost. KENET's objectives include: setting up a cost-effective and sustainable private networks with high speed access to the global Internet; sharing teaching and learning resources; providing a platform and infrastructure for electronic teaching and learning; and collaboration in research and development for educational content. Unfortunately, KENET's initial efforts are centered at interconnecting all the universities and a selected number of tertiary institutions in the country, essentially excluding schools.

Technological advancement has been made in private and high-cost public schools in and around the key towns (Sanya, 2001). Sanya's study provides a comprehensive report on the development of educational technology in Kenya. In particular, she showcases one school's efforts to make its students technologically literate. If one visited Braeburn High School, in Nairobi, where she teaches, one would see that the use of technology is not different from that in other private schools in Britain or the United States. Braeburn is a high-cost private school whose student population is largely drawn from Kenya and the international community working in the Eastern African Region. It follows the British National Curriculum and prepares students for universities abroad. While here, one quickly realizes that IT is the fastest growing department in the school, enjoying a bigger budget because of the high cost of IT equipment. It should be pointed out that different schools are at different points on the technology continuum.

Braeburn's management realized the need to expose students to the use of information technology as early as possible in order to prepare them for the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) society of the 21st century. ICT is also integrated in the teaching of other subjects and is made compulsory at lower levels in Years 8 and 9. Many students take it as an optional subject in Year 10. Technology is a crucial part of research during project work in science-based subjects and it brings home firsthand information on natural disasters such as tropical hurricanes, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, giving the learners an opportunity to perceive the dramatic effects of such phenomena. The school has a Web site, www.braeburnhigh.com, and almost all the students have email addresses for ease of communication (Sanya, 2001).

Very recently in October 2004, Microsoft Corporation launched the Kiswahili edition glossary to act as a baseline of the Kiswahili Language Interface Pack (LIP), which computer users can install on top of existing installations of Windows and standard Microsoft Office applications— Word, Excel, Outlook and PowerPoint (East African Standard on 10/29/2004). I think this is a step in the right direction to make technology more accessible and more user friendly to more Kenyans the majority of whom are required and do speak Kiswahili.

Major Challenges for Educational Technology

Kenya is faced with new challenges of meeting the public demand for education and training both as a human right and as an essential investment in an endeavor to attain industrialization. These challenges point to the need for the education sector to properly play its role of developing needed skilled workers (UNESCO, 2000). Major challenges facing the education sector in Kenya relate to its financing, regional disparities in access, high wastage rates, relevance and quality, reducing child labor and provision of information and communication technologies (Government of Kenya/UN Kenya, 2003; Otieno, 2003).

Advancement in technology has dramatically revolutionized ways in which information is collected, analyzed, transmitted, and stored. This has made IT a vital component within fields that rely heavily on databases such as banking, trade, agriculture, television, engineering, medicine, and research (Sanya, 2001). Adopting modern instructional multimedia technology thus sounds quite appealing. Kenya has been forced to reexamine its educational policies, aims, and objectives with the view to incorporating IT into educational planning and development. Educators and curriculum planners have been compelled to go back to the drawing board to reexamine the national goals and objectives of education (Sanya, 2001). Such re-thinking will ensure that the products of the system are adequately prepared for the challenges that await them in the world of work, both within and outside Kenya. The government is also keen to ensure that Kenyans keep abreast of changes taking place in the world to guarantee that the country remains an integral part of the global economy.

The provision of adequate learning facilities at the primary and secondary school levels, including equipment and human resource capacity, impedes the quality and relevance of the imparted skills to pupils. Thus the greatest challenge facing the country at the moment is how to prepare its young people to become literate and able to fit in a society where information technology is fast changing and quickly replacing other forms of media. Technical training can be very expensive since all the equipment must be imported using scarce foreign exchange reserves (Ngware & Nafukho, 2002). Very few schools can afford computers to help make students technologically literate. If anything, Kenya still finds it difficult to provide just enough text books for their overcrowded classrooms (Omari & Mosha, 1987).

Another big limitation to the use of technology in Kenya is poor infrastructure (Adhola, 2004; Sanya, 2001). Provision of telephone facilities still remains far below the current demand. Many of the lines that exist are either out of date or dysfunctional, interrupting connections to the information superhighway. The use of electricity is limited mainly to urban centers. Therefore, few rural schools are able to incorporate the use of computers, TVs, and VCRs in the learning process. This leaves the radio as the most widespread form of technology used in schools across the country. Immense infrastructure expansion and human resource implications for free primary education thus remain a challenge (Otieno, 2003).

The country does not have adequately trained personnel to make this dream a reality across the educational spectrum. At the primary level, the problem is even bigger: there is inadequate emphasis on practical skills altogether in the curriculum (Sanya, 2001). Besides, there are no resources available to in-service teachers in order for them to cope with these new demands. Matters are worsened by the fact that Kenya still has high levels of illiteracy.

The infrastructure expansion and human resource implications of the free primary education policy are immense. Although the World Bank and other donors have already made commitments towards its support, resource mobilization (including teacher training) by the Kenya government remains a challenge (Otieno, 2003).

In conclusion, the four educational levels (pre-primary, primary, secondary, and post-secondary) in Kenya are increasingly faced with resource scarcity and increasing unit costs (Republic of Kenya, 1997). Considering financial, technological, cultural as well as administrative implications, it is not always easy nor prudent to “successfully” jump on the technological advancement bandwagon. Should Kenya still go ahead and invest heavily in modern technology? Well, maybe. But the country has a major uphill task to provide more immediate educational needs as well as ensure Kenya is not left behind in the clamor for globalization.

Recommendations from Nation and Individual Cases

Policy formation and implementation should not be restricted by a rigid political and bureaucratic structure, which confuses wishes with basic needs and rights. Instead, critical, rational and professional inputs should provide short and long-term goals for education.

Policy makers and planners need to work in partnership with professional educationists and researchers when making decisions related to education sector. Professionals need to be consulted about policy issues in education because they are key members of the team. ICT policy should focus on providing high-quality education. Without a skilled human resource base on ICT, the development of the sector will be stifled, constantly relying on expatriates to deliver for us (Adhola, 2004).

It is in the interest of national governments and donors to boost current efforts to invest in telephony and other basic services that promote Internet use. Accordingly, governments should adopt a two-pronged strategy that addresses telecommunication infrastructure requirements and supports systems that enhance skills in the use of ICTs with a view to contribute to economic, social and political development (Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, 2003). Putting in place mechanisms for cost-recovery measures at the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology headquarters and at all levels of education. This will not only reduce the cost of education, but will also enhance saving of resources which could be utilized in improving the quality of education.

Kenya has been ranked among the top United Nations member countries likely to achieve the Universal Primary Education (UPE) goal by the year 2015 (Otieno, 2003). The government should strengthen the free primary education policy, governance and management, curriculum review and development, and staffing arrangements.

In addition, achieving universal primary education by the year 2015 will require pursuing already existing programs, especially the textbook and bursary funds and the school feeding programs. It will also be heavily dependent on the implementation of the Children's Act in its entirety. Other efforts should be directed at strengthening early childhood education given the importance of early intervention for education success.

The government should harness and maximize on opportunities such as those provided by Microsoft to make technology more accessible to Kenyans. They might approach Microsoft Incorporated to solicit further funding. Provisions ought to be made for an all-inclusive education by modifying existing facilities to accommodate children with disabilities as well as training of special education teachers.

Teachers will be required to participate more in the production of learning material, e.g. text-books, posters, maps, which are locally and regionally appropriate and of low cost, but of high quality. Mechanisms to reward such teachers will have to be jointly put in place. The ICT should take into account the "gender gap" that sometimes exists with the use of modern technologies. At present, most women who live in the rural areas of Kenya have very low access to ICTs due to the high costs associated with computer use. Rural women also need to be able to use local languages in their dealings with ICTs (Adhola, 2004).

Notes

The authors of this chapter would like to thank the KSTC Nursery Principal, Mrs. Nungari, the teachers (Christine, Esther, Gladys, Jane, Janet, Mercy, and Rose) together with the other student teachers and the KSTC Nursery students for their cooperation in bringing this project to fruition. We couldn't have done it without their willingness to accommodate us despite their busy schedules. We cannot forget to thank Mr. Kinoti for his expertise in video-taping the events at KSTC Nursery for this project. We wish to thank Michael Barbour, Caterina Poggi, Gary Shattuck, and Dr. Michael Orey for editing the drafts that resulted in this chapter. Many thanks again to each and every one of you. Last but not least, we wish to thank Sean Hendricks for his wonderful guidance and support in the video editing and compression.

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Notes

Miscelaneous web sources

1. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/english/Natreps/reports/kenya.pdf
2. http://www.brianmicklethwait.com/education/archives/000975.htm
3. http://www.kenyaweb.com/education/index.htm
4. http://www.education.go.ke/Resources.htm
5. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/issues/education/story_impact04_kibera.htm
6. http://www.ipsnews.net/africa/interna.asp?idnews=24246
7. http://www.britishcouncil.org/home/learning/globalschools/globalschools

Related Cases

Nairobi

This case study discusses a school, Kenya Science Teachers College Nursery, located in Nairobi.

Citation

APA Citation: Inyega, H. N., Mbugua, P. N. (2005). Kenya. In M. Orey, T. Amiel, & J. McClendon (Eds.), The web almanac of educational technologies. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://www.waet.uga.edu/