Italy

From WAET

Caterina Poggi
Ingegneria dell’Informazione, Milano Politecnico University

Contents 1 National Educational Infrastructure 2 General description of the educational system 3 Distribution of schools, teachers, and resources around Italy 4 Technology Policy 5 Current and forecasted investment in educational technologies 5.1 Technologies 5.2 Results of national surveys of technology 5.3 Professional development of teachers for technology integration 5.4 Major challenges 6 References 7 Notes 8 Related Chapters 8.1 Capri 9 About the Authors 10 Citation

Italy is divided in 20 administrative regions; five of them have a special administrative autonomy, because of their historical, cultural and geographical peculiarities: the two islands (Sardinia and Sicily) and the small regions on the Northern border (Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino Alto Adige and Valle d'Aosta); the latter two are bilingual (all images are the author's unless linked to outside sources).

Figure 2. The Alps (Trentino)

Figure 3. A beach in Sardegna

The GDP per head being $26.500 in 2001, Italy is slightly over France and UK and slightly below Germany. The rates of unemployment (10.7% in 2001) are lower than in Spain, almost equal to the rates of France, still they nearly double those of UK (OCSE, 2004).

Figure 4. Venice (Venezia)

Figure 5. Rome (Lazio)

Northern Italy is generally richer and more developed than in the South. There are also remarkable cultural differences between the North and the Centre-South. While the North is more industrially developed, very much focused on work, the South is advancing more slowly, has a less lively economy, and is culturally more family-centered.

National Educational Infrastructure

Since 1999, school is mandatory until 15 years of age. Law 53 in 2003 has established the principle of every citizen's right and duty of studying at least 12 years, or obtaining a diploma (by passing the State exam ^[1]at the conclusion of high school education) by 18 years of age. A school reform has been designed according to this principle, and legislative decrees are being developed to progressively enact it. State exams at the end of elementary, middle and high education include national written and oral tests; at least one teacher in the commission comes from an external school. Elementary and middle school education gives pupils a solid general basis in all the main disciplines, from music to earth science. When choosing a high school at 13 years of age, students decide the area on which they want to orient their course of study. It may be science, art, foreign languages, classic studies, pedagogy, chemistry, biology, computer science, economy, electronics… Changes from one school to another are possible, however specialization becomes accelerated from the third year on. Unlike Lyceums and technical institutes, professional high schools (preparing students for work rather than for further study) may last three years, plus one or two optional years of specialization. The reform of 2003 plans to structure all high schools in 2 biennia plus one terminal year.

General description of the educational system

In Italian schools, a "class" is not a course that some students may decide to include in their curriculum. The curriculum is not decided by students, and "class" refers to a group of students who will attend the same set of courses throughout all the years that they will spend in that school. When registering in a school, pupils are grouped in classes. Usually a class consists of 15 to 25 students, but it can reach over 30. If in any given year a school has 100 first-year students, it may split them through 4 different sections (A, B, C and D), forming 4 different classes of about 25 students each. As there might be slight differences among the curricula of the different sections (for example, section D may include German as a foreign language in addition to English), and a different set of teachers is assigned to each section, pupils may express a preference for a particular session at the moment of applying.

Students have all their lessons taught in the same classroom, unless specific equipment is required; e.g. for science experiments, performing arts, or computer activities, the whole group of students moves to the science/art/computer lab. Unless specific changes are requested, children may spend three to five years with the same classmates (and possibly more); thus, the class (Fig. 7) becomes often a very united group. In Italy the school year starts at the beginning of September and finishes in the first week of June (with State exams going through mid-July). School usually starts around 8:00 a.m. School hours last between 50 and 60 minutes. There is usually a mid-day break of 10 to 30 minutes around 11:00.

Elementary school teaches basic literacy and primary skills (reading, writing, basic mathematics). Students spend five hours a day at school, Monday through Saturday. In alternative, they may spend eight hours a day, Monday through Friday: this option is called tempo pieno (full time). After the school reform of 2003, since school year 2004-05 all elementary schools are required to offer full time service if parents request it: this is especially helpful when children's' parents are both working full time. Every class is followed by three teachers: one, the tutor, teaches the main subjects and has a larger number of hours. S/he will follow the students through the 5 years of Elementary school. The others have a specialization, e.g. a degree for teaching Physical Education or a degree for teaching English. One of them is usually also responsible of Technology, i.e. every class activity in the computer lab.

Middle school is usually organized in five hours a day, Monday through Saturday; all kinds of disciplines are taught, from music to geology, at a good depth, to give kids a solid general basis and the elements to choose the kind of course of study they wish to follow later. Secondary school begins: students have a different teacher for each subject area: literature and grammar, math and science, history and geography, music, art, English, and technical drawing.

High school generally is organized in five hours a day or more, Monday through Saturday, with differences in the number of hours according to the year and the kind of school. Some schools may have additional hours in the afternoons.
High schools can be divided into three main kinds of institutes: *Lyceum: Classic, Scientific, Foreign Languages, Artistic, and Socio-Psycho-Pedagogical (new denomination of the school for future teachers). Basically, these schools prepare students for the University and their level is generally rather high. Until not many decades ago, only Lyceum students had access to University. *Technical Institute: Students prepare for professions that require a specific preparation, although not necessarily a degree, such as: accountant, company secretary, electrician, chemical expert, and so on. Many students start working after earning their diploma. This kind of school is more likely to receive funding from local companies, who are interested in the formation of a skilled workforce. *Professional Institute: Students prepare for middle-low level work, usually mechanic, electrician or computer-based employment. Middle school teachers generally orient students with comprehension or discipline problems towards these institutes (although the only requirement for admission to any kind of high school is to pass the State exam at the end of middle school). As there are specializations in computer-sciences, these schools are more likely to have computer technology equipment and technology-trained staff.

University: Before 2002, a university education lasted in most cases 5 years (four years with courses and one year to write a thesis) and provided a degree. The degree is a title with a government-recognized value; it is required for working in many public institutions, as well as for a number of professions, such as attorney, doctor, architect. PhD courses of study, accessible through a competition exam, were usually taken only by students who wished to work in academia.

For most students it took longer than five years to complete a degree, with high drop-out rates. Many students would hardly attend any courses (university buildings can only host a small percentage of the total students registered to many non-scientific courses of study). Where the course of study requires laboratories and scientific equipment, admission is limited through a test: the number of students allowed to register every year depends on the availability of resources.

After a university reform initiated in 2002, the university system has become more similar to other European university systems, informally called "3 + 2": three years of study are necessary to acquire the 1st level degree, or bachelor degree. After this, students may either choose special formative programs, begin working, or continue studying for two more years, to obtain a specialized degree, or 2nd level degree. The two years of specialization may be acquired in a different university - and even in a different discipline, if prerequisite constraints are satisfied. This should encourage the mobility of students and the "interoperability" of different research areas.

The course of study has become more similar to high school: courses have been reorganized in modules, each one assigning a specific number of credits. Prerequisite constraints, mandatory attendance, mid-semester written tests and time limits to obtain the required amount of credits have become more frequent. Previously students had no time limits to complete the required number of exams, may study entirely on their own, and were evaluated almost exclusively through oral tests.

Public kindergartens are usually administered by local town municipalities. A large percentage of kindergartens are private (often operated by nuns); as pre-school education is not compulsory, the number of public kindergartens is not sufficient to satisfy the demand. Public schools are financially dependent on the national government; very few are wholly financed and managed by the local town municipality or by the province (i.e. administrative area usually including one large town and the surrounding smaller towns). Public funding comes also from local administrations, provinces, and regions (larger administrative areas, usually including 3-7 provinces).

The State sustains 83.62% of the total public expenditure on education, due to its prominent role in paying the staff salaries (remarkably the most important item in the school expenditure). Municipalities contribute 14.2%, bearing the costs of kindergartens, the premises, their maintenance, furniture of kindergartens and compulsory school, assistance services (refectory, school transport, etc.) and free schoolbooks. Provinces are in charge of the premises, supply, maintenance, furnishing of high schools, and remuneration of the non-teaching staff. Regions only contribute 2.2%. (OCSE 2004)

There are also many private schools, most of them confessional (Catholic). In private schools that have obtained"parity", the title of study has been certified by the government as equal to that of public schools. While public schools are free or (in higher education) require a very low tuition fee that low-income students do not have to pay, private schools and universities require a generally significant fee, because they hardly get any funding from the government.

The financing to private authorized kindergartens and officially recognized primary schools by the State (about 0.9% of the total state expenditure in 1999) is a contribution for the free reception (including refectory service) of students with a disadvantaged socioeconomic family status. Local municipalities and regions sustain school attendance through financial aid to families. (OCSE 2004).

Distribution of schools, teachers, and resources around Italy

Table1. Distribution of School Population in Italy

Geographic area	Elementary school		Middle school		High School		Total
	Students	Classes	Students	Classes	Students	Classes	Students	Classes
NORTH	989.641	54.250	618.224	29.003	865.440	40.446	2.473.305	123.699
CENTRE	454.646	24.551	308.422	14.398	471.766	21.984	1.234.834	60.933
SOUTH	736.151	40.106	530.706	25.220	780.036	35.222	2.046.893	100.548
ISLANDS	342.802	18.555	251.247	12.254	347.833	16.029	941.882	46.838
TOTAL	2.523.240	137.462	1.708.599	80.875	2.465.075	113.681	6.696.914	332.018

(Total number of Kindergarten pupils: 871.665) Source: MIUR 2004. Survey on Technological Resources for Education in Italian schools, commissioned by MIUR - Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research, September 2004. Online surveys published on the Ministry web site were completed by 87% of all Italian schools. Small towns usually have elementary and middle schools, but do not always have high schools. Often, high-school students from small towns will commute an hour or so by public transportation or by parents. Young adults are not eligible for their drivers license until they are 18 years of age.

Table 2. Distribution of schools per geographic area

	Elementary schools	Middle schools	Comprehensive institutes (elementary + middle school)	High Schools
North Italy	857	504	1.287	1.130
Center	563	328	716	788
South Italy	856	626	757	885
Sicily	298	126	449	324
Sardinia	92	73	135	135
Total	2.666	1.657	3.343	2.898

Source: MIUR 2004. Universities are present in large towns (more than 100.000 inhabitants), and not all disciplines are available in every town. Therefore, many students move to the town of the university they have chosen, if it is not accessible from their hometown in a reasonable time. If commutable, they usually continue to live at home with their families.

Technology Policy

The school reform in year 2000 proposed the following objectives related to the schools' technological infrastructure: *All students should master information and communication technologies (both the tools and conceptual mastery, based on scientific foundations) *Curricula at every level must include the science of information and communication technologies (ICT), integrated in various disciplines; in addition, at least in the first two years of secondary school, the study of ICT must be a specific discipline (i.e. Computer Science), and compulsory for all students. *To effectively integrate technology into the curricula, it must be clear how the skills provided by each discipline may include the use of technology. (MIUR, 2001)

A more recent school reform (Law 53/2003 and related decrees) has made the study of English and Computer Science compulsory from the first year of Elementary school to the end of high school.

Conventions for the reduction of prices for computers in schools have been established in 1999 by art. 26 of Law 23/99, basing on agreements with Consip, a society of the Ministry of Finances that provides consultancy and technological services to the Public Administration. These have considerably increased the schools' technological equipment: 18.3% of desktop and 54.9% of laptop computers installed in schools have been acquired thanks to these agreements (MIUR, 2004).

The Ministries of Education, of Finances and of Technologies have promoted a program ("PC for teachers") to encourage teachers to buy their own computers, through market-surveys and price cut agreements (Fig. 7). The Decree of June 3, 2004 has established the terms and conditions for the "Reduction of price for teachers of public schools to buy a personal laptop computer in the year 2004".

The Ministry of Education monitors the situation of technological resources for education in Italian schools through an online survey on the Ministry web site (www.istruzione.it), which is submitted to schools and updated every year. Annual reports are published on the website. The Ministry is especially interested in ensuring the access to technological resources in every school, and promoting all initiatives directed to fully support the teaching of computer science from Elementary school on, and experiment with new educational models based on the use of technologies.

Current and forecasted investment in educational technologies

The public expenditure for education (not including vocational training and university) in 2001 was Euro 48,648,000 that is equal to 5.1% of the Gross Domestic Product. Over the total public expenditure, expenditure for education absorbs nearly 10.4%. The trend of expenditure in the last decade shows some increasing attitude. Public expenditure for school staff (including non-teaching staff) absorbs most of the Ministry of Education's budget (in 2001 it was about Euro 37,815,000).

The average annual cost per student of state schools was Euro 6,057 with a significant variation depending on the levels of education. (OCSE 2004). In 1996 the Government started PSTD, a national Program for the Development of Educational Technologies with the goal to extend Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Italian schools. PSTD started with a limited number of pilot schools. In 1997 it was extended to all schools (MIUR, 2001).

PSTD was meant to achieve the following objectives: *Mastery of multimedia and telecommunication tools for work and education for students *Improvement of effectiveness for the teaching/learning processes and the organization of didactics *Improvement of teachers' competence both in using technologies and in accessing resources useful for everyday teaching.

By 1999, all schools with low or no expertise in the use of technologies received 14.5 millions lire each (about $7,000-$8,000) to create a multimedia-equipped structure only for teachers, and to organize training courses for teachers. Schools which then presented a project to introduce multimedia in didactics received up to 40 millions lire (about $20,000); local town administrations evaluated projects and assign resources.

The total funding for 1997-2000 was 740,762 millions lire (just over $370 million in US dollars) (MIUR, 2001).

National public funding includes PSTD funds. Source: MIUR 2004. The 2002-03 survey of the National Observatory of Technology (responses cover more or less 10% of Italian schools, from elementary to high school) shows that funds for implementing local area networks (LAN) in schools come mainly from PSTD.

Table 3. Funding for the design and implementation school LANs

PSTD	80.4 %
[Public] funds administered by the school	67.8 %
Local public administration	21.9 %
Privates	5.6 %
Foundations	6.2 %
Loan	1.2 %

National public funding distributed in 2001 with the Ministry Circular 152 and in 2002 with the Ministry Circular 114 have had a remarkable impact.

Technologies

Italian schools usually have a science lab, video room (where videos are usually watched; sometimes there is also a TV on wheels), projector for transparencies, language lab, computer lab, computers in the headmasters, secretaries and (not always) teachers' offices. Blackboard, transparencies projector and projecting screen are visible. Traditionally, Information and Communication Technologies have always been present in technical and professional institutes, where specializations in computer science have existed since 1967 (MIUR, 2001). In the 1980s, the National Plan for Computer Science introduced computer science in experimental math and physics curricula in all high schools; most schools were provided with a computer lab. Further investments allowed increasing and renovating the equipment.

Table 4. Computer per students in high schools

Typology of Institute	Number of students	Number of computer	Ratio students/ computer
Professional Institutes	339.668	51.668	6,6
Other Superior Institutes	454.479	47.707	9,5
Technical Institutes	635.160	114.001	5,6
Art and Music Institutes	70.627	6.452	10,9
Lyceums	687.015	45.194	15,2
Total	2.186.949	265.022	8,3

Source: MIUR 2004 The situation in kindergartens, primary and middle schools is very different and is dependent on local situations, as government investments have been much lower and less systematic. There have been many experiments and pilot projects involving a few hundred schools. However, surveys show decreasing trends in disparities.

Table 5. Technological equipment

School	Printers	Scanner*	Hardware to burn CDs*	CD Readers*	DVD Readers	total
Elementary	35.927	13.881	3.386	7.994	1.635	62.823
Comprehensive inst.	19.750	7.014	2.109	4.370	1.145	34.388
Middle schools	21.592	7.556	1.848	3.470	1.034	35.500
High schools	73.245	13.957	3.594	7.205	2.509	100.510
Total	150.514	42.408	10.937	23.039	6.323	233.221

*External to computer. Source: MIUR 2004.

Table 6. Other equipment in all national schools

Video-conferencing system	1.689
Web Cams	12.271
Satellite Receivers	9.023
Digital Decoders	6.069
Analogical Decoders	2.533
Video Projectors	17.789
Televisions	51.544
Audio Reader Recorders	73.539
Video Reader Recorders	42.641
Slides projectors	14.573
Luminous boards	24.182
Digital video cameras	11.388
Digital photo cameras	13.386
Total	280.627

Source: MIUR 2004. The distribution of equipment has become more consistent through the national territory since 2001. In the South computers per student have increased from 1:33 in 2001 (in Centre-North the ratio was 1:25) to 1:12.4 in 2004 (MIUR, 2004).

Consortia exist among schools to share technological equipment. 525 schools declared the use of shared equipment (MIUR, 2004). Source: MIUR 2004. Networks According to the survey performed for the Ministry of Education in 2004, over 60% of schools have a network and in 16% of schools there are at least three cabled classrooms. About 6000 schools, thanks to an agreement with RAI - Radio Audiovisione Italiana, the national broadcasting company, have been equipped with digital receivers for satellite TV (MIUR, 2001). Software The Ministry monitors the use of open source software and free programs produced by schools and encourages teachers both to be informed and to share information. Catalogues of these programs are available on the Ministry's website.

A large number of initiatives have been directed toward the creation of net-services for schools and teachers.
The main reference agency for such initiatives is INDIRE (National Institute for the Documentation of Innovation and Educational Research, former Library for Pedagogical Documentation). However, some initatives have been promoted by other public and private institutes.

Results of national surveys of technology

A survey on Technological Resources for Education in Italian schools has been conducted for the Italian Ministry of Education (MIUR). Online surveys published on the Ministry web site during school year 2003-04 were completed by 87% of all Italian schools. Results have been published on the Ministry of Education website in September 2004.

An online survey was conducted by the national Observatory for Technology (OTE) of the Ministry of Education between 2002 and 2003 to assess the presence of networks in Italian schools. Data were collected from 1,100 schools only, but they are useful to show trends. 10% of the schools reported having a LAN connection. The observatory also collected 100 best practices of school LAN implementations; descriptions have been made available to every school on the Ministry website , offering examples to help schools implementing their own network. LANs in schools are rapidly increasing: from 426 in 2000, to 770 in 2001, to 1116 in 2002-03 (10.1% of the schools).

Surveys since 2001 show the progress of technology in schools (more computers, more LANs, more equipment, less disparities…). Survey reports (MIUR, 2004) reveal that in the years between 2001 and 2004 the number of students per computer has decreased from 28:1 to 10.9:1, in full alignment with European standards of 1 computer every 10-15 students. 100% schools possess computers; however 26% of computers are on the verge of obsolescence. High schools, especially technical-professional institutes, tend to possess more computers than elementary and middle schools; where there are strong connections with the local community and sponsoring from local companies, disparities are more evident. The total number of computers in kindergartens is 3,355. Over 85% of Italian schools have Internet access, over 700 have wireless, and 23.000 computer science laboratories are present in schools of every order and level, with decreasing disparities between primary and secondary education. 84% of schools web sites are administered by teachers.

Professional development of teachers for technology integration

The Ministry's objectives concerning teachers training in Information and Communication Technologies in year 2000 were to train 90,000 teachers (by offering 1,800,000 training hours) by the end of school-year 2001/02 (MIUR, 2001). 196.000 teachers in 2003 have been involved in technology training programs (MIUR, 2004). Teachers are required to a minimum amount of training hours a year, in order to retain their position in the teachers' national ranking. Training may concern technology, learning methodologies, advancements or modifications in some disciplines, and so on.

The Ministry offers part of the training; it also evaluates and recognizes courses offered by private schools or universities. An example is the Discetech project of Politecnico di Milano. Since 1996, the Hypermedia Open Center laboratory of Politecnico di Milano, the most prestigious engineering university in Italy, has offered free training courses to teachers of high, middle, elementary schools, and kindergarten in the areas around Milano and Como. Teachers learn how to use tools like Word, PowerPoint, Flash, Publisher, Photoshop and so on to make presentations, to create resources, and to make projects with their students involving the use of computers. While advanced courses teach the use of rather complex tools like Flash and Photoshop, in basic courses teachers are taught how to use a computer from the very beginning (e.g. how to switch it on and create a new folder). Many teachers are enthusiastic about experimenting with their students with the newly acquired skills.

• View a project by a Classic Lyceum about an ancient Greek author.
• View a project by a class of first graders on the story of the magic bean.

Since school year 2004-05, Discetech courses (formerly an experimental project financed through research funds, now legally recognized by the Ministry) are offered on a cost basis and are being moved online.

Major challenges

A report inquiring on the situation of Italian teachers (OCSE 2004) states that the general objectives of Italian school policies, according to the public opinion and the majority of teachers, are:

• "Modernization - in terms of higher efficacy and efficiency - and decentralization of school administration;
• Development of school autonomy and their subsequent responsibility with respect to results (launching of an evaluation system of student results and school quality, on which experts have not reached full agreement yet);
• Qualification (training, recruitment, career development, evaluation, etc.) and professional training (teaching), also in view of improving salary conditions, that are universally considered modest." OCSE (2004). Teachers matter: attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers.

Among the major challenges concerning integration of educational technologies in Italian schools, an important goal is that of training teachers effectively. A large proportion of Italian teachers belong to a generation ^[2] not familiar with computers. On the contrary, many students can use computers (sometimes even better than the school technicians). After receiving training, teachers need assistance and efficient, continuous technical support.

The Ministry is encouraging the acquisition and use of computers in families of teachers and students. There is a need for creative use of technologies in education: teachers can bring their class into the computer lab, but not many of them can engage the students in effective learning activities.

It is the public opinion's perception that many problems exist in Italian schools. Schools complain because the building lacks a gym, a conference room, a cafeteria, or because it is old and needs repairing. Teachers suffer from "lost of prestige, widespread uneasiness, crisis of identity, deterioration of self- image and of the image offered to public opinion and, finally, the weakened trust of students and their families" (Cavalli, 2000). People complain about the poor quality of teaching, but many parents ^[3] are not willing to accept the teachers' complains about their children's lack of effort .

This is one more discouragement for teachers, who already complain about their low salaries, oppressive bureaucracy, and weaknesses in the public school system (OCSE 2004). However, school reforms are another source of resentment, as the frequent changes introduced are often vague, confusing, difficult to apply, and hardly satisfy any one.

The European Action Plan for the Information Society (e-Europe), approved by the European Commission and the Ministry Council of the European Union in 2000, recommended every country to promote initiatives and destine funding to the following objectives:

• Provide all schools with Internet access and multimedia resources by year 2001

By year 2002:

• Create Internet access in every classroom
• Connect all schools to an European high-speed research network
• Create services and resources for teaching
• Train all teachers for an effective use of technologies
• Adapt school curricula and teacher training curricula (MIUR, 2001)

These ambitious objectives have certainly not been achieved in all Italian schools as of this time. However, schools are making remarkable efforts to move in this direction.

References

Cavalli, A. (2000). Gli insegnanti nella scuola che cambia - seconda indagine IARD sulle condizioni di vita e di lavoro nella scuola italiana (Teachers in the evolving school - second IARD survey on the conditions of life and work in Italian schools). Bologna, Il Mulino.

Eurydice (2004). Eurydice Report: Le cifre chiave dell'informazione e della comunicazione nella scuola in Europa (The key figures of information and communication in European schools). Retrieved November 26, 2004, from: http://www.eurydice.org

Jacomella, G. (2004). Gli insegnanti italiani sono i più vecchi (Italian teachers are the oldest ones). Retrieved November 19, 2004, from: http://www.corriere.it/Primo_Piano/Cronache/2004/11_Novembre/19/insegnanti.shtml

MIUR - Ministry of Education, University and Research (2004, September). Survey on technological resources for education in Italian schools. Retrieved November 19, 2004, from: http://www.istruzione.it/mpi/pubblicazioni/2004/attrezzature_tecnologiche_04.shtml

MIUR - Ministry of Education, University and Research (2001). Technological innovation in Schools: Present and Future). Retrieved November 20, 2004, from: http://www.istruzione.it/mpi/pubblicazioni/ 2001/bilancio_italiano.pdf

OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2003). Teachers matter: attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers; Country background report for Italy, July 2003. Retrieved November 20, 2004, from: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/7/17997702.pdf

OTE - Observatory of Technology (2003). From computers to the network. Survey on computer networks in schools. Retrieved November 20, 2004, from: http://www.istruzione.it/innovazione/didattica/ote.shtml

SCUOLAB (n.d.) Projects Discetech and Bimbotech by Politecnico di Milano. http://www.scuolab.it

Notes

Related Chapters

Capri

A case study focused on a teacher from Liceo Scientifico Fanti, located in Capri.

About the Authors

Caterina Poggi is PhD student in Computer Science at Politecnico di Milano. She graduated in Communication Sciences at University of Lugano (Switzerland). Her research interests focus on multimedia applications for edutainment, in particular educational 3D worlds, virtual museums and cultural heritage applications. As member of the HOC lab of Politecnico di Milano, she is in charge of monitoring the educational effectiveness of programs for schools, including Learning@Europe and Stori@Lombardia.

Citation

APA Citation: Poggi, C. (2005). Italy. In M. Orey, T. Amiel, & J. McClendon (Eds.), The web almanac of educational technologies. Retrieved <insert date>, from http://www.waet.uga.edu/